Monday, November 22, 2021

Lyndon B. Johnson - No. 36 - Washington, DC & Arlington, VA - Oct. 2, 2021

 



Source:  Smith, Carter.  2004
Were it not for the Vietnam War, LBS’s presidency might have been among the most brilliant. His presidency saw the most progressive legislation signed since FDR: the Civil Rights Act, the Voting Rights Act, the Fair Housing Act, and Medicare. 

But Vietnam ruined everything. 

LBJ had little interest in getting involved in a foreign war. His reason for being in politics was to help people. But he knew the challenges and opportunities of opposing Communism in Vietnam. He once told John F. Kennedy, “I cannot stress too strongly the extreme importance of following up this mission with other measures, other actions and other efforts … we must decide whether to help these countries to the best of our ability or throw in the towel in the areas and pull back our defenses to San Francisco and a ‘Fortress America’ concept.” He supported the concept of aiding South Vietnam but he couldn’t decide whether to be hawk or dove. He said later as president, “I was bound to be crucified either way I moved.” 

In response to actual and alleged attacks by the North Vietnamese navy in the Gulf of Tonkin, Congress on August 6, 1964, authorized Johnson to “take all necessary measures to repel” attacks and come to the aid of South Vietnam. 

But complicating matters was the election of 1964 for which Johnson had to campaign soon after he entered office in late November 1963. He was running against ultra-conservative Republican Barry Goldwater. So, Johnson needed to appear tough on Communism. 

In fact, even in the short time he was in office, Johnson was so burned out by the war, that he contemplated not running for a term of his own. But Lady Bird pushed him into running. She said, “I can see nothing but a lonely wasteland for your future. Your friends would be frozen in embarrassed silence…” (Goodwin, 1976) 

So, Johnson ran and won the greatest victory in presidential history -- winning by 15 million votes and gaining 61% of the vote. His electoral margin was 486-52 and he lost only five states (all Southern). In addition, the Democrats won control of the House and Senate by large margins. 

Soon after his inauguration, the United States began the “Rolling Thunder” air strikes in response to an attack on Plaiku military base. By April 1965, the United States had 50,000 troops in South Vietnam. And by June these troops were authorized to conduct combat operations. Troop strength was quickly increased to 200,000 and eventually to 500,000. Throughout the war, the public and Congress were given minimal information. And Johnson avoided requesting federal taxes to pay for the war so as to not antagonize the public. But doing so was inflationary and hurt the economy. 

                                                                 * * * 

The Vietnam War Memorial

With the delta variant of COVID still raging, especially in Johnson’s native Texas, we decided to stay local to cover his life. We visited the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, better known as “the Wall,” to highlight the war that bedeviled Johnson throughout his presidency and prompted him not to seek re-election in 1968. 

In the late morning, we walked down the incline next to the black granite wall until it towered over us — a tableau filled with the names of the more than 58,000 people killed in the war. 

Volunteers clad in pale yellow golf shirts and khaki pants/shorts/capris chatted with the few dozen visitors young and old about the war, helping them look for names, and explaining how the names are listed. 

A smattering of flags and roses lay against the bottom of the wall, some with messages. 

Vietnam Women's
Memorial

Close to the wall is the Vietnam Women’s Memorial, a large bronze statue surrounded by trees and benches. A plaque at the statue says more than 265,000 women served during the Vietnam era, mostly as nurses. They tended to 300,000 soldiers, saving 98% of those who went to the hospital. 

                                                                   * * * 

LBJ’s path to the presidency was in many ways inspired by his father, Sam Johnson. He was a progressive Texas politician who looked out for the less fortunate. Sam fought the Klu Klux Klan and defended the civil liberties of minorities. He would bring needy strangers to the house for dinner. 

Young Lyndon loved to join his father on his campaign trips. Johnson’s mother was also a strong influence on his life. She loved her son but would use her love as a reward, and she would freeze him out if he didn’t do as she wanted. She spent a lot of time with him while he was at college, helping him with his studies. 

Johnson met and married Claudia Taylor while visiting Austin in 1934. He proposed to her the day they met. She turned him down, but they ended up marrying within months. He called her “Lady Bird.” Having no career of her own, she was his ardent supporter throughout his life. When Johnson became president, she became known for her efforts to beautify the nation’s highways. 

Johnson was never popular and was somewhat of a loner. But he learned at a young age that befriending powerful people was a path to success. When he went to Southwest Texas State Teachers College, he went out of his way to become known to the college president, who soon asked Johnson to be his assistant. Later Johnson would use that strategy to rise in the House and then the Senate. Johnson shared his father’s progressive views. He thought teaching was the best way to help people. After graduation, he became a history teacher at Sam Houston High School in Cotulla, Texas. Most of the students were children of Mexican migrant workers. He became the debate coach, softball coach, volleyball coach and song leader. He even used his salary to buy sports equipment. He encouraged his students to avoid speaking Spanish so they could learn English faster. Later he would say, “I swore when I was teaching those kids that if I ever had the power, I would help them. And now I have the power and I mean to use it.” (Rubenstein, 2019). 

                                                                 * * * 

 In 1931, he was asked by Rep. Richard Kleberg to become an aide. LBJ was on his way to Washington, D.C. 

Johnson stayed at the Dodge Hotel, where many of the other aides stayed. Johnson worked hard at networking with the other aides, going so far as to visit the bathroom multiple times to meet the other aides. In fact, on some days, he took four showers and brushed his teeth five times! He knew that relationships would help him turbocharge his career. Knowing that information was power, he would also read everything related to congressional activities. He was busy and only slept about 4-5 hours a night. 

His hard work was noticed by Rep. Sam Rayburn, who convinced FDR to appoint Johnson as the director of the National Youth Administration (NYA) in Texas, a New Deal program. In typical Johnson fashion, he worked hard at the job. 

In 1937, Texas Rep. James P. Buchanan died and Johnson decided to run for his seat. He put his enormous energy into the race and visited every village in the 10th District. Thirty-year-old Johnson won and was now back in D.C. as a politician in his own right. 

Johnson grew closer to Rayburn, who began to regard LBJ as a sort of son. Johnson’s connections with Rayburn helped bring money to Texas, including electrification of his district. 

When the United States entered World War II, Johnson was the first congressman to enlist. He served in a non-combat role in the Navy. However, he did participate in one combat mission as an observer on a B-26 bombing run over New Guinea. He was supposed to ride in the Wabash Cannon and was in fact sitting in the plane on the runway. But the takeoffs were behind schedule, so he ran to the bathroom. When he returned, the Wabash Cannon had departed. Instead he rode on the Heckling Hare, which had not yet taken off. That mission saw heavy combat, and his plane was badly damaged. Johnson was awarded a Silver Star for this coolness under fire. It was an obvious political award because none of the actual crew won that award. As a historical footnote, the Wabash Cannon was shot down on that mission and all aboard died. 

Johnson ran again for a Senate seat in 1948. But first he had to beat popular former Gov. Coke Stevenson in the Democratic primary. Johnson put in his usual hard work and visited 20 towns a day on some days. The election was a squeaker, with Johnson winning by only 87 votes out of about 900,000 cast. Allegations of cheating came up immediately. A ballot box from Precinct 13 showed up with 200 votes for Johnson. Interestingly, all of the ballots were in same handwriting, same pen and in alphabetical order. The Stevenson campaign accused Johnson of illegalities. They took their case all the way to the Supreme Court, but the court would not review it. Johnson won the subsequent general election in heavily Democratic Texas by a margin of 2 to 1. 

As he had with Rep. Rayburn, Johnson found a mentor in the Senate — Sen. Richard Russell. Sen. Russell was a loner bachelor with few friends. LBJ and Lady Bird would have him over often for dinner. LBJ called Russell “one of his daddies.” 

Johnson knew that as a senator for the entire state of Texas, he needed to act more conservative. But he only went so far; he did not join the Southern Caucus. 

Soon Johnson was elected party whip. By 1953 he was minority leader. When the Senate turned Democratic in 1954, he became the majority leader. It was a meteoric rise. 

 
The "Johnson Treatment"

Johnson was now a political master. His abilities to convince people would be legendary. He said, “Never let a conversation end. There’s always something that someone doesn’t want to tell you. And the longer the conversations goes on, the more likely you are to find out what that is” (Rubenstein, 2019). In what became known as "the Johnson Treatment," he would use his 6’ 4 height to tower over people and intimate them. He also knew he could change legislative power by handing out committee assignments strategically. 

In July 1955, his hard-driving, chain-smoking, and heavy-drinking lifestyle caught up with him and he had a heart attack. He was only 46. 

One of LBJ’s achievements as senator was the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1957, which strengthened voting rights for Blacks. LBJ pushed the bill through the Senate, which approved it on August 7, 1957. It was the first civil rights bill since the late 1800s. 

While senator, Johnson bought a Texas radio station, KTBC. This was a controversial move because LBJ sat on the Commerce Committee that oversaw the Federal Communications Commission. The station would eventually become very profitable. 

                                                                 * * * 

When 1960 rolled around, Johnson was ready to run for the presidency. He naively thought that as a senator, he had control of delegates from his state, so he did not campaign for the nomination. He thought John F. Kennedy would be an easily beatable opponent because he was nine years younger and sickly. But Kennedy campaigned hard and was quickly nominated at the Democratic National Convention. Basically, the liberal wing of the Democratic Party didn’t want Johnson as their candidate. 

JFK was ambivalent about having LBJ as his running mate. He didn’t like him but liked how he operated politically. And of course, Johnson brought Texas’s large cache of electoral votes. 

Once in the vice president’s office, Johnson wanted to preside over the Democratic Senate Caucus but Democratic senators would have none of it. He also wanted supervision of some government agencies, but Kennedy was not going to let that happened. Instead, Johnson was given oversight of NASA, the agency he had helped establish in 1958. He was also given oversight of the Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO), which was established to eliminate racial discrimination. He later said that the vice presidency was political death and that he “detested every minute of it” (Goodwin, 1976). 

And then came Dallas. 

 When JFK was killed on November 21, 1963, Johnson kept Air Force One on the ground for an extra hour so that Jackie Kennedy could be on the plane for his swearing in. He thought that having her next to him would lend legitimacy to his presidency. 

And he continued JFK’s legislative agenda. 

Johnson said, “no memorial or oration or eulogy could more eloquently honor President Kennedy’s memory than the earliest possible passage of the civil rights bill for which he fought so long” (Goodwin, 1976). To work with southern conservatives such as Richard Russell, Allen Ellender, John McClelland and Harry Byrd, Johnson pretended to share their negative attitudes toward Blacks. But in the end, LBJ took a hard stance in favor of civil rights and defeated a Southern filibuster. The bill passed the Senate 73-27 and the House 289-126. On July 2, 1964, Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Among other measures, it opened public places to Blacks and enforced school desegregation. 

But voting rights still needed to be ensured. In Alabama, only 19 percent of Blacks were registered to vote. (In Mississippi, the number was only 6 percent.) On March 7, 1965, Blacks marched from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to advocate for voting rights. As they approached the Edmund Pettus Bridge outside Selma, they were violently attacked by Alabama state troopers. Images of the attack were captured on television. Johnson responded by nationalizing the Alabama National Guard, and later that month the march went forward 25,000 strong. Congress responded by passing the Voting Rights Act of 1965 74-19 (Senate) and 333-85 (House). LBJ signed the bill on Aug. 6, 1965. 

Johnson was upset that some Blacks had turned to rioting to vent their frustrations. But the riots had nothing to do with him. The riots began with the arrest of a Black motorist in Los Angeles in August 1965. The rioting would continue on and off for three years. It culminated with the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. in April 1968. When the rioting ended, 225 people had been killed and 4,000 had been wounded. And there was $112 billion in property damage. 

Johnson had a vision of a “Great Society” that would prosper as a whole and not leave anybody behind. It included Medicare, a higher minimum wage, better unemployment benefits, auto safety, Head Start (free preschool education for the poor), Job Corps (job opportunities in urban areas), Community Action (required minimum participation by the poor in some federal programs), and especially fairness and equality for Blacks. 

 Johnson signed Medicare on July 30, 1965, in Independence, Missouri, so that former President Truman could attend; Truman had pushed for national health insurance while president. 

 He also signed the Fair Housing Act in April 11, 1968. The law banned discrimination on the basis of “race, religion, national origin, sex, (and as amended) handicap and family status.” 

While president, a side of Johnson’s personality that could only be characterized as twisted came out. He would swim in the White House pool in the nude and mock those on his staff who did not. He continued to work while sitting on the toilet — and his staff was expected to come into the bathroom while he defecated so that work could continue. 

Like a lot of the recent presidents, LBJ had affairs on the side. One was with Alice Glass, a socialite, and another with the Helen Gahagan Douglas, an actress, the wife of actor Melvyn Douglas, and a member of Congress. Lady Bird put up with his affairs. 

As his first full term was drawing to a close in 1968, Johnson’s poll numbers were rock bottom —somewhere around 36 percent. He was tired and decided against running for a second full term. In a televised address he said “… I shall not seek, and I will not accept, the nomination of my party for another term as your president.” 

                                                                 * * * 

Needing to occasionally escape the White House, LBJ and Lady Bird frequently crossed the Potomac River to reflect on the issues of the day and enjoy the magnificent views of the Washington Monument and Lincoln and Jefferson Memorials. 

That spot is now marked by a tall granite stone in what is now Lady Bird Johnson Park. 
Lady Bird Johnson
Park


Four plaques lay around the base of the rock, highlighting four of LBJ’s most important quotations. Visitors can enjoy the views and reflect on his presidency on one of the half-dozen or so benches encircling the site. 

The park is off the George Washington Parkway between the Potomac and the Boundary Channel and is along the Mt. Vernon Trail that parallels the river. The trail itself should not be missed. Though frequently crowded, it affords walkers, runners and cyclists amazing views of the Washington skyline, the planes landing at Ronald Reagan Washington National Airport, the Potomac River and nature itself. 

With the air a bit chilly but the sun warm. Cathy took advantage of the trail and went for a run (north from the park to Rosslyn, south to Teddy Roosevelt Island, and then back to the parking lot), while Tom took a nap and got a head start reading about the next president on our tour, Richard Nixon. 

The park itself is bucolic, full of shady trees and bushes and a walking path that loops around. But if you’re expecting a bunch of flowers—as you should since Lady Bird had had flowers planted to beatify the highway system—you will be disappointed. 

The park shares parking with a marina that offers a bar and grill and both inside and outside seating. A very nice way to finish up our visit. 

As noted earlier, LBJ could have been reflecting on the Vietnam War as he gazed at the memorials, dedicated to our most notable presidents. Perhaps he was asking himself how they would have handled the conflict, which single-handedly destroyed his presidency. 

One of the granite plaques in Lady Bird Johnson Park reads: “I hope it may be said 100 years from now that by working together, we helped to make our county more just for all its people. I believe at least it will be said that we tried.” 

 Directions 

 The Vietnam Memorial is located in Washington, DC near Constitution Ave NW and 22nd Street NW. 

 Lady Bird Johnson Park is located on an island in the Potomac River and can be reached by the George Washington Memorial Parkway. 

 References 

 Dallek, Robert. 2003. An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963. Little Brown and Company, New York, NY. 

Goodwin, Doris Kearns. 1976. Lyndon Johnson and the American Dream. St. Martin’s Press. New York, NY. 

History Channel. 2005. The Presidents: The Lives and Legacies of the 43 Leaders of the United States. 
Peters, Charles. 2010. Lyndon B. Johnson. Henry Holt and Company. New York, NY. 

Rubenstein, David. 2019. The American Story: Conversations with Master Historians. Simon & Schuster. New York, NY. Robert A. Caro on Lyndon B. Johnson 

Smith, Carter.  2004. Presidents: Every Question Answered.  Smithsonian.  Metro Books.  New York, NY.

Websites 

Kiger, Patrick, J. 2019. How a Luckily Timed Bathroom Break Saved LBJ's Life During WWII https://www.history.com/news/lbj-world-war-ii-bathroom-break 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnam_Veterans_Memorial

 https://prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2013/02/14/90-letters-in-90-days-the-courtship-of-lady-bird-and-lbj/

Sunday, August 29, 2021

John F. Kennedy - No. 35 - Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington, VA - June 26, 2021

 

John F. Kennedy 

Arlington National Cemetery, Arlington,  VA 

June 26, 2021 

JFK Official Portrait
And we’re back. 

Fifteen months after the pandemic sidelined our Presidential Pursuits — and everyone and everything else — we headed to Arlington National Cemetery to see JFK’s gravesite. 

We chose Arlington because the JFK Library in Boston was closed until July Fourth weekend, and even then, it offered timed entries and limited hours on the weekend only, and its theaters were. And obviously, the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port, Massachusetts, is off limits. 

Unfortunately, Arlington National Cemetery doesn’t provide much detail about Kennedy, with the Welcome Center’s focus mainly on the Tomb of the Unknowns, whose 100th anniversary is this year. The visitor center doesn’t provide any short, historical films, either — much to Cathy’s dismay. It’s possible that the (not free) shuttle tour gives more information, but we walked up to the gravesite and didn’t tour the entire cemetery. 

To get to the cemetery, we took the Washington area’s Metrorail system to Arlington (Red to Blue Line) in our first foray back onto the subway since the pandemic started, masks required. 

An hour or so later, we arrived at Arlington, on a hot and humid, but fortunately breezy, late-June day.

The entrance to Arlington is fairly close to the Metro stop, just a few minutes of slow walking. As you’re exiting the Metro, you can opt to head instead to the historic Memorial Bridge and walk over to the Lincoln Memorial and then back across the Potomac River to the cemetery. At the very least, stop and admire the views of both — Washington, DC at its finest. 

After going through screening and through the crowded Welcome Center, we walked the half-mile to JFK’s gravesite. You can also pay for the shuttle tour around the cemetery, which is probably best. Arlington is not small. And it’s not flat. 

 We walked the steps up to the gravesite, with Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee’s mansion, now called Arlington House, overlooking it from the top of the hill above, the American and POW flags in front of the house flying at half-staff. (The flags fly at half-staff all day Monday-Saturday, and are raised at 5:30 p.m. each night, because the cemetery holds so many funerals each day.) 


Buried at the gravesite are JFK, his wife, Jackie, and two infants — one who was stillborn in 1956 and one who lived for two days in August 1963, not even four months before JFK was assassinated. 

 * * * 

Heading into the 1964 election, John F. Kennedy knew he needed to shore up the South, especially Texas, which was turning Republican. So, in November, he and Jackie headed to Texas. He knew there were people in Texas vehemently opposed to his presidency. Kennedy told Jackie, “We’re heading into nut country today. But, Jackie, if somebody wants to shoot me from a window with a rifle, nobody can stop it, so why worry about it?” 

The limo - Nov. 22, 1963
Their first day in Fort Worth was uneventful. On the second day, Nov. 22, 1963, JFK and Jackie flew from Fort Worth to Dallas Love Field where a caravan awaited. The president and first lady were seated in the back of the second car in the caravan, a three-row 1961 Lincoln Continental limousine. Directly in front of them were Texas Gov. John Connelly and his wife, Nellie. Secret Service agents rode in the front. The caravan traveled a meandering route thorough Dallas with crowds of people lining the roads to view the president. Everyone in the car was delighted with the reception. Nellie is reported to have turned to the president and said, “Mr. President, you can't say Dallas doesn't love you.” JFK replied, “No, you certainly can’t.” Those were his last words. 

 The caravan traveled slowly — only 11 mph. — allowing a Marxist fanatic named Lee Harvey Oswald, perched in a window of the sixth floor of the Texas Schoolbook Depository, to take three shots at the car. The first bullet seriously wounded the president and the governor. The second or third shot, taken a few seconds later, caused a fatal head wound. Although he was rushed to the Parkland Memorial Hospital, Kennedy had no hope of surviving. He was 46 years old. 

 * * * 

The gravesite is a very simple resting place. The flat, dark gray slate slabs marking the graves lay on top of irregularly sized stones of Cape Cod granite. Fescue and clover were planted in the crevices to give the appearance of stones lying naturally in a Massachusetts field, according to the JFK Library website. 

An eternal flame burns at the site. Jackie got the idea for the eternal flame from the French Tomb of the Unknown Soldier below the Arc d’Triomphe, by which she was inspired, according to the welcome center display. 

Kennedy gravesite - 
Arlington National Cemetery 

 * * * 

It wasn’t a sure thing that Kennedy would even live to the age of 46. In spite of his portrayal as a youthful, vigorous man, he had serious health problems. He had Addison’s disease, a malfunctioning of the adrenal glands, which in the early 1960s was often fatal. For his debilitating back pain, he took
painkillers and amphetamines. It was often difficult for him to walk. 

Kennedy had always been sickly. When he was young, he had stomach and lower intestine problems, which caused him to be in and out of hospitals. He often underwent enemas, which took a toll. He joked to a friend, “My poor bedraggled rectum is looking at me very reproachfully these days…” He was so sickly, he had last rites given to him three times. 

It was his father, Joseph P. Kennedy, who pushed him into politics. Growing up, the eldest son, Joe Jr., was anointed for political greatness. But he was killed during a secret mission to bomb German targets during World War II when his plane blew up in mid-air. 

So, Joseph Sr. turned his attention to the next oldest son, John. JFK was given no choice. His father said, “I got Jack into politics. I was the one. I told him Joe was dead and that it was therefore his responsibility to run for Congress.” (Dallek, 2003) 

Joseph Kennedy was a successful businessman, an ambassador to Great Britain, and an ardent isolationist during the early days of World War II. Being “nouveau rich,” he always felt he wasn’t good enough for high society and emphasized to his children the importance of winning and proving their worth. His wife, Rose, was an emotionally isolated Catholic. They had nine children. Rose had outlived four of them when she died at 104. 

John understood that to be successful in politics, it was necessary to serve during WWII. But his poor health held him back and he failed his physical. But his father intervened and he was accepted in the Navy. He was trained as a PT boat specialist and was assigned stateside to be a PT boat trainer. But JFK wanted to see action overseas. Again, his father intervened and he was given command of PT-109 in the Solomon Islands. 

Lieutenant John F. Kennedy
commanding PT-109

His boat was assigned night patrol. On Aug. 1, 1943, a Japanese destroyer hit his boat in the dark. PT-109 sunk immediately. Despite his poor health, Kennedy had been a swimmer in college and had trained up to four hours a day. So he was able to guide and assist his surviving crew to a nearby island. Then he left and swam for help. 

JFK was now a legitimate war hero. 

Now Kennedy was ready to make the transition to politics. Joe helped his son win his first political race in a 1946 run for Congress. First, he had to convince the mayor of Boston not to run for Congress but to rather run for another term as mayor. Then Joe spent $250,000-$300,000 of his own money on the campaign. JFK was elected as a 29 year old. Then Joe helped JFK get an assignment on the House Education and Labor Committee. 

Joe was back at it in the 1952 Senate election when Kennedy decided to run for the seat of incumbent, Henry Cabot Lodge. Joe loaned $500,000 to the owner of the Boston Post. This was seen by some as a thinly veiled bribe to encourage the paper to write favorably about his son. JFK’s campaign themes were foreign affairs and anticommunism and he squeaked out a narrow victory: 51.5 percent vs. 48.5 percent. 

Jacqueline Bouvier weds
John F. Kennedy

On Sept. 12, 1953, the 36-year-old JFK wed 24-year-old Jacqueline Lee Bouvier at her stepfather’s estate in Newport, R.I. Jackie was a newspaper photographer who had met JFK while he was a congressman. She liked to dress well and spent liberally on clothes — her expenses tended to exceed JFK’s income. She was fluent in French and Spanish and also spoke several other languages with less fluency. JFK was reportedly jealous of Jackie’s language skills. Jackie was somewhat introverted and was never comfortable being in the public eye. 

While still a first-term senator, Kennedy decided to run for president in 1960. It was a surprising move since his tenure in the Senate had been short and undistinguished. According to Dallek (2003), “after five years in the Senate, Jack had not attached his name to any major piece of legislation.” 

As usual, his father Joe was there to support him financially. So were friends of the mafia, such as Frank Sinatra, who was close with Chicago mob boss Sam Giancana. Kennedy won the Democratic nomination. 

Kennedy - Nixon
presidential debate
 JFK faced conservative Republican Sen. Richard Nixon. They participated in the first televised debate on Sept. 26, 1960, before a huge audience of 70 million. (The debate is available on YouTube.) Kennedy appeared self assured and opened by attacking Communism, one of Nixon’s signature issues. Nixon appeared on the defensive throughout but came across better than we had been led to believe. Sometimes Nixon appeared nervous, but he gave a strong showing. It is interesting to learn that Nixon was found to have had a severe blood infection during the debate. 

One of the issues JFK had to face during his campaign was his Catholic faith. That turned out not to be an overwhelming issue. Also, there were also rumors of illegal political shenanigans on the Democratic side. Democratic Chicago Mayor Richard J. Daley told Kennedy, “…with a little bit of luck and the help of a few close friends, you’re going to carry Illinois.” (Bradlee, 1995). JFK won the election 303-219 electoral votes, becoming the youngest person elected president at 43 years old. 

Kennedy’s 1,036-day presidency began Jan. 20, 1961. Dallek (2003) calls his and FDR’s first inaugural speeches the two most powerful of the 20th century. JFK famously issued a call to action; “And so, my fellow Americans: Ask not what your country can do for you – ask what you can do for your country.”

JFK pledged not to appoint relatives to his administration, but backtracked and appointed his 36-year-old brother, Robert to be the attorney general. 

The issues that defined JFK’s presidency were the fight against Communism and to a lesser extent, civil rights. 

During his campaign, JFK claimed that the Republicans were soft on Russia and had allowed the Russians to get ahead of the U.S. in the nuclear missile race. That turned out not to be true; the United States was far ahead of the Soviets by as much as 100 to 1 The U.S. had the Soviet Union surrounded with nuclear missiles on land and submarines bristling with nuclear missiles prowling offshore. 

 Once in office, JFK continued to expand the U.S. nuclear missile arsenal from 96 to 464 and Polaris submarines from 6 to 29. In addition, JFK “wanted to triple spending on civil defense” including the construction of home fallout shelters (Dallek, 2003). 

In August 1961, to stem the tide of thousands of people leaving East Germany every day, Russian-backed East Germany constructed a 13-foot high wall between East and West Berlin. In response to the “Berlin Wall,” the Americans sent 1,600 troops to West Berlin. 

On Oct. 23, 1961, the Soviets detonated a 30-megaton bomb. A week later they detonated an even larger bomb: 50-megatons, more than 3,300 times the power of the Hiroshima atomic bomb. The U.S. started a fallout shelter program and gave instructions and survival pamphlets to homeowners. 

The proxy war with Russia also played out in Fidel Castro’s Cuba. The U.S. funded and supported Cuban exiles training to overthrow Castro, who came to power in 1959. Initially, planes from Nicaragua piloted by Cuban exiles bombed military airfields in Cuba. Then a force of 1,400 Cuban exiles landed on the beach of the Bay of Pigs. But the Cubans had been tipped off and quickly overwhelmed the exiles. Twelve hundred troop surrendered. In addition, Castro’s troops rounded up and arrested 20,000 supporters. Kennedy was distraught at the failure and said, “How could I have been so stupid?” But he took full responsibility and said, “… Victory has a hundred fathers and defeat is an orphan.” 

In the fall of 1962, the Soviets began deploying medium and intermediate range missiles — with the capability to mount nuclear tips — to Cuba. As news of this leaked out of Cuba, many of Kennedy’s military commanders suggested an air strike or an invasion to take out the missiles. Kennedy also authorized a U2 flight to provide photographic proof. The flight showed that the missiles were in advanced stages of deployment. Kennedy knew he needed to move fast to keep the missiles from becoming operable He put in place an embargo to stop all ships coming into Cuba. He made a television address to the nation that was watched by 10 million people — it was the largest audience for a TV event up to that time — during which he disclosed the nature of the threat. 

For these “13 days in October,” the world held its breath not knowing if a nuclear war was about to break out. But Kennedy held back-channel negotiations and agreed not to invade or bomb Cuba if the Soviets removed the missiles. He also promised to remove previously deployed U.S. missiles from Turkey at a later date —as long as the terms of the deal were not disclosed. Dallek (2003) wrote, “His restraint in resisting a military solution that would almost certainly have triggered a nuclear exchange makes him a model of wise statesmanship in a dire situation.” 

Another theater of the war on Communism was Vietnam. The U.S. sent 500 troops to the Thailand-Laos border when President Ngo Dinh Diem’s pro-Western government was threatened. The U.S. also authorized funding for an additional 20,000 South Vietnamese troops. (The French, having already been defeated in Indochina, warned the U.S. that Asia would be a nightmare.) JFK believed in and continued Eisenhower’s domino theory. But he did draw the line at troops on the ground. He said, “U.S. troops should not be involved on the Asian mainland.” Instead, the U.S. provided “advisers.” But these advisers tended to get involved in the fighting. For example, South Vietnam’s military was lacking in technical abilities such as flying planes, so the U.S. advisers did that. By 1963, the U.S. had 16,000 advisers on the ground. Even so, JFK tried to keep U.S. involvement out of the press. The U.S. also approved of the assassination of the corrupt Diem, which took place in November 1963. 

JFK knew his approach was fraught with danger. He told Washington Post Executive Editor Ben Bradlee (Bradlee, 1975), “The trouble is, we are violating the Geneva agreement. Not as much as the North Vietnamese are, but we’re violating it.” JFK understood the challenges of fighting a guerrilla war in Vietnam. He said, “One guerrilla can pin down twelve conventional soldiers, and we’ve got nothing equivalent.” 

 Kennedy was also interested in improving the lives of Black Americans. But he knew that although the Democrats had a 89-seat advantage in the House (262 to 173), 101 of them were from South, a region generally opposed to civil rights. Because the South was gradually becoming more Republican, JFK didn’t want to lose the crucial support of southern Democratic senators. 

Kennedy’s record on civil rights is uneven. During the 1960 campaign, JFK and Bobby helped Martin Luther King get released from a hard labor prison sentence in Atlanta. Once elected, he directed his Cabinet secretaries to expand opportunities for Blacks. Kennedy also nominated African American Thurgood Marshall to the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals. JFK federalized the Mississippi National Guard to get James Meredith enrolled at the University of Mississippi. And he issued an executive order integrating federally supported public housing. 

But in general, JFK slow walked the changes that were needed to alleviate a century of unfairness and repression of Black Americans. His brother, the attorney general, delayed civil rights hearings in Louisiana and Mississippi. JFK said to the commissions conducting the hearings: “You’re making my life difficult.” Kennedy also appointed southern racists to some judgeships, and they did their best to prevent school integration and deny voting rights. 

March on Washington
Aug. 28, 1963
When the Freedom Riders rode buses throughout the South to gain political rights for Blacks, JFK gave only lukewarm support. He was wary of blowing too much political capital on civil rights. A frustrated Martin Luther King said, “I have almost reached the regrettable conclusion that the Negro’s great stumbling block in his stride toward freedom is not the White Citizen’s Councilor of the Ku Klux Klanner, but the white moderate, who is more devoted to “order’ than to justice, who … constantly says, ‘I agree with you in the goal you seek, but I cannot agree with your methods of direct action,’ who paternalistically believes he can set the timetable for another man’s freedom.” In August 1963, MLK and other civil rights leaders converged at the “March on Washington.” It was there that MLK delivered his “I Have a Dream” speech. 

Dallek (2003) wrote: “For his part, Jack’s interest in civil rights was more political than moral. The only blacks he knew were chauffeurs, valets or domestics…” It took his successor, LBJ, to see it as a moral issue. 

JFK finally asked for a civil rights bill the day before Medgar Evers was shot in the back and killed in his Jackson, Mississippi, driveway in June 1963. The bill would give Blacks a right to vote and stop discrimination in public places. 

Kennedy also continued the United States’ space race with the Soviets. Fitting with his New Frontier aura, he pushed for the U.S. to land a man on the moon. “We choose to go the moon in this decade, and do the other things, not because they are easy, but because they are hard…,” he said. He kept up the pressure to continue the race to the moon even when the Soviets said they were no longer interested. 

 * * * 

In front of JFK’s tombstone is a small round stone, imprinted with part of “A Soldier’s Prayer” and the words “Honor-Remember-Explore” at the bottom. 

A Soldier's Prayer

Also buried or memorialized at the cemetery are JFK’s three brothers. Robert’s and Teddy’s grave sites are around the corner and are even simpler than his. Both graves are marked with a white marble cross on the green hill leading up to the Lee Mansion, with a white gravestone several feet in front. Both tombstones had white roses and pennies on them. A few feet away, their other brother, Joe Kennedy Jr., is memorialized with more of a traditional gray tombstone. 

 Directions 

 The Arlington National Cemetery is located in Arlington, VA near Washington, DC. Parking is available but the cemetery is also accessible by Washington Metro.

 References 

 Bradlee, Ben. 1995. A Good Life: Newspapering and Other Adventures. Simon & Schuster. New York, NY. 

 Bradlee, Ben. 1975. Conversations with Kennedy. W.W. Norton & Company. New York, NY. 

 Dallek, Robert. 2003. An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963. Little Brown and Company, New York, NY. 

 Rubenstein, David. 2019. The American Story: Conversations with Master Historians. Richard Reeves on John F. Kennedy. Simon & Schuster. New York, NY. 

 History Channel. 2005. The Presidents: The Lives and Legacies of the 43 Leaders of the United States. 

 Websites 

 https://www.americathebilingual.com/jackie-kennedys-prowess-as-a-polygot/ 

 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assassination_of_John_F._Kennedy 

 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbrcRKqLSRw 

 https://www.archives.gov/research/jfk/warren-commission-report/chapter-7.html#conclusions